79.    Non-defining relative clauses: persons

A.    Subject: who

No other pronoun is possible. Note the commas:

My neighbor, who is very pessimistic, says there will be no apples this year.

Peter, who had been driving all day, suggested stopping at the next town.

Clauses such as these, which come immediately after the subject of the main verb, are found mainly in written English. In spoken English we would be more likely to say:

My neighbor is very pessimistic and says . . .

Peter had been driving all day, so/and he suggested . But clauses placed later in the sentence, i.e. clauses coming after the object of the main verb, are quite common in conversation:

I’ve invited Ann, who lives in the next flat. Clauses following a preposition + noun are also common:

I passed the letter to Peter, who was sitting beside me.

B.     Object: whom, who

The pronoun cannot be omitted, whom is the correct form, though who is sometimes used in conversation:

Peter, whom everyone suspected, turned out to be innocent. As noted above, a non-defining clause in this position is unusual in spoken English. We would be more likely to say:

Everyone suspected Peter, but he turned out to be innocent. But non-defining clauses coming later in the sentence, i.e. after the object of the main verb or after a preposition + noun, are common in conversation:

She wanted Tom, whom she liked, as a partner; but she got Jack,

whom she didn’t like.

She introduced me to her husband, whom I hadn’t met before.

C.     Object of a preposition: whom

The pronoun cannot be omitted. The preposition is normally placed before whom:

Mr Jones, for whom I was working, was very generous about

overtime payments.

It is however possible to move the preposition to the end of the clause. This is commonly done in conversation, and who then usually takes the place of whom:

Mr Jones, who I was working for, . . .

If the clause contains an expression of time or place, this will remain at the end:

Peter, with whom I played tennis on Sundays, was fitter than me could become

Peter, who/whom I played tennis with on Sundays, was fitter

than me.

D.     Possessive: whose

Ann, whose children are at school all day, is trying to get a job. This is George, whose class you will be taking. In conversation we would probably say:

Ann’s children are at school all day, so she . This is George. You will be taking his class.

an    all, both, few, most, several, some etc. + of + whom/which

This form can be used for both people and things. See examples below. For each a more informal equivalent is given in brackets:

Her sons, both of whom work abroad, ring her up every week.

(Both her sons work abroad, but they ring her up every week.)

He went with a group of people, few of whom were correctly equipped

for such a climb.

(He went with a group of people; few of them . . .)

The buses, most of which were already full, were surrounded by

an angry crowd.

(Most of the buses were full, and/but they were surrounded by

an angry crowd.)

I met the fruit-pickers, several of whom were university students.

(I met the fruit-pickers; several of them were . . .)

I picked up the apples, some of which were badly bruised.

(I picked up the apples; some of them . . .)

The house was full of boys, ten of whom were his own grandchildren.

(The house was full of boys; ten of them . . .)

81.    Non-defining relative clauses: things

A.    Subject: which

that is not used here:

That block, which cost £5 million to build, has been empty for years.

The 8.15 train, which is usually very punctual, was late today. In speech we would be more likely to say:

That block cost £5 million to build and has been empty for years.

The 8.15 train is usually punctual; but it was late today.

B.     Object: which

that is not used here, and the which can never be omitted: She gave me this jumper, which she had knitted herself or She gave me this jumper; she had knitted it herself. These books, which you can get at any bookshop, will give you all the information you need or

These books will give you all the information you need. You can get them at any bookshop.

C.     Object of a preposition

The preposition comes before which, or (more informally) at the end of the clause:

Ashdown Forest, through which we ‘II be driving, isn ‘t a forest

any longer or

Ashdown Forest, which we ‘II be driving through, isn’t a forest

any longer.

His house, for which he paid £10,000, is now worth £50,000 or

His house, which he paid £10,000 for, is now . . .

D.     which with phrasal verbs

Combinations such as look after, look forward to, put up with (see chapter 38) should be treated as a unit, i.e. the preposition/adverb should not be separated from the verb:

This machine, which I have looked after for twenty years, is still

working perfectly.

Your inefficiency, which we have put up with far too long, is

beginning to annoy our customers.

E.     Possessive: whose or of which

whose is generally used both for animals and things, of which is possible for things, but is unusual except in very formal English.

His house, whose windows were all broken, was a depressing sight.

The car, whose handbrake wasn’t very reliable, began to slide

backwards.